The Tragedy of the Vatican's Recent Declaration on the Roman Church

By Fr. George Morelli

July 13, 2007

(The) kingdom (of God), is characterized, as we have shown, by humility and gentleness of heart. It is the combination of these two qualities that constitutes the perfection of the person created according to Christ. For every humble person is invariably gentle and every gentle person is invariably humble (St. Maximus the Confessor, "On the Lord's Prayer," Philokalia II).

With a stroke of the pen and with the full approval of Pope Benedict XVI, Cardinal Levada, the Prefect for the Congregation of the Doctrine of the Faith of the Roman Catholic Church late last month effectively abrogated the spirit of Pope John Paul II Apostolic Letter on the Eastern Churches Orientale Lumen (Light of the East) of May, 1995. The Vatican released Responses to Some Questions Regarding Certain Aspects of the Doctrine on the Church that expressed concepts of Roman supremacy in language not heard for years. A spirit of loving dialogue and mutual healing cultivated over the last half century and especially in the last decade is being sorely tested.

From the outset, let me be clear that I am no expert in canon law, church history, dogmatic theology, or patristics. By God's grace I am a clinical psychologist, I coordinate the Chaplain and Pastoral Counseling Department of my Archdiocese, and I help pastor an Orthodox parish. My focus is pastoral theology (Morelli, 2006d). Having said that, I hold to the words of St. Irenaeus of Lyon:

One must follow those presbyters (priests), who are in the Church and who, as we have indicated, have the succession from the Apostles, and who, together with the succession of the episcopacy, by the good disposition of the Father, have received the reliable gift of the truth.

Therefore, in communion with my Bishop by virtue of my calling by God and ordination as a priest, I offer the following comments as pastor and counselor.

Orientale Lumen: The Publican and the Pharisee

Two men went up into the temple to pray, one a Pharisee and the other a tax collector. The Pharisee stood and prayed thus with himself, "God, I thank thee that I am not like other men, extortionists, unjust, adulterers, or even like this tax collector." But the tax collector, standing far off, would not even lift up his eyes to heaven, but beat his breast, saying, "God, be merciful to me a sinner!" (Luke 18:10,11,13).

Orientale Lumen is the document that charted a new course of dialogue between the Eastern (Orthodox) and Western (Roman) Churches after centuries of estrangement. Written by Pope John Paul II, the document reflects a profound spirit of humility toward the East and a rigorous call to work to overcome historical animosity and ill will. Pope John Paul wrote:

We cannot come before Christ, the Lord of history, as divided as we have unfortunately been in the course of the second millennium. These divisions must give way to rapprochement and harmony; the wounds on the path of Christian unity must be healed ... Going beyond our own frailties, we must turn to him, the one Teacher.

Note Pope John Paul's admission that both Churches have fallen short. He spoke as the Publican did. Note too the commission to move "beyond our own frailties." There is no hint of the pride of the Pharisee who said he was "not like other men"

The willingness of Pope John Paul to declare the words of the Publican "be merciful to me a sinner" is illustrated later on in the document. He wrote:

Among the sins which require a greater commitment to repentance and conversion should certainly be counted those which have been detrimental to the unity willed by God for his People. In the course of the thousand years now drawing to a close, even more than in the first millennium, ecclesial communion has been painfully wounded, a fact for which, often enough, men of both sides were to blame.

Pope John Paul asserted that the healing has to occur in both Churches; a process that requires each to be open to the operation of the Holy Spirit:

It is necessary to make amends for them and earnestly to beseech Christ's forgiveness. The sin of our separation is very
serious: I feel the need to increase our common openness to the Spirit who calls us to conversion, to accept and recognize others with fraternal respect, to make fresh, courageous gestures, able to dispel any temptation to turn back. We feel the need to go beyond the degree of communion we have reached.

From a pastoral perspective, the assertion that healing between the Churches can only take place through the self-acknowledgment of "our own weakness" is very important. It affirms the teaching of the Church Fathers that humility is the primary virtue and no healing of the relationships between people can take place without it. Pope John Paul drew from scripture to amplify this point:

It is significant that Christ said these words precisely at the moment when Peter was about to deny him. It was as if the Master himself wanted to tell Peter: 'Remember that you are weak, that you, too, need endless conversion. You are able to strengthen others only insofar as you are aware of your own weakness. I entrust to you as your responsibility the truth, the great truth of God, meant for man's salvation, but this truth cannot be preached or put into practice
except by loving'. Veritatem facere in caritate (To live the truth in love, cf. Eph 4:15); this is what is always necessary. Today we know that unity can be achieved through the love of God only if the Churches want it together, in full respect for the traditions of each and for necessary autonomy.

These words are pastorally appropriate. They confess infirmity and express the desire for healing. They are not accusatory and certainly not arrogant, and reveal a sense of longing that the Western Church might pray the prayer of the Publican, "Lord have mercy on me a sinner" while inviting Eastern Churches to take up the same prayer.

This has been the spirit informing the dialogue between the Orthodox and Roman Church for nearly a decade. It exists in high level conferences as well as grassroots efforts such as the Orientale Lumen Conferences sponsored by the Society of St. John Chrysostom (www.olconference.com).

Have we forgotten the Publican?

Contrast the charitable words of Pope John-Paul with those in the directive "Aspects on the Doctrine of the Church" released last week:

However, since communion with the Catholic Church, the visible head of which is the Bishop of Rome and the Successor of Peter, is not some external complement to a particular Church but rather one of its internal constitutive principles, these venerable Christian communities lack something in their condition as particular churches.

Clearly something has changed, or so it seems absent any clarification from the Vatican. Most apparent is the definitive tone of Roman supremacy and the lack of any reference to the necessary humility required for constructive dialogue to take place. Healing relationships is always a very sensitive enterprise and when one party points to the other's problems while not confessing his own, dialogue stops.

I recall that at my first Oriental Lumen Conference in 2005 that I was heartened when a member of the Roman Curia acknowledged that the Vatican realized that the Orthodox Churches would only accept the Papacy as it existed in the first century. He also acknowledged that the curia needed to be dismantled and that the jurisdictional functions that originally rested in the dioceses need to be returned. The Orthodox Churches on the other hand, needed to accept some kind of centralized coordination of Patriarchal Sees so that the Church could more clearly speak with one voice.

If Rome wants to revert to the old approach of lecturing the other churches using the language of "defects" and the like, then in short order the attitude of mutual accusation will return. The progress gained in the last decade will be forfeited. A tragic and disastrous breakdown may occur.

Rome must not forget that for the Orthodox, doctrines surrounding the Papacy present an intractible problem. Papal infallibility for example, was declared by a single Patriarch (the Pope of Rome) and a local council (Vatican I). It has no binding authority on the rest of Christendom. While the Orthodox can affirm a primacy of honor to the Roman pontiff, we do not recognize his jurisdictional claims as authoritative. That is one reason why the most recent statement from
the Vatican is so troubling. It seems to dismiss the one issue on which the Orthodox cannot compromise. Bishop Hilarion Alfeyev of Vienna and Austria, the Russian Orthodox Church representative on the International Commission for Theological Dialogue Between the Catholic Church and the Orthodox Churches wrote not long ago:

Historically, the primacy of the bishop of Rome in the Christian Church, from our point of view, was that of honor, not
jurisdiction -- the jurisdiction of the pope of Rome was never applied to all the churches ... there can be no compromise whatsoever ... on papal primacy.

More recently Bishop Hilarion said "We, the Orthodox, believe that, being not in communion with them, the Roman Catholic Church lacks something in its condition."

Breakdown or Opportunity? A Pastoral Perspective

From a pastoral perspective, the failure of the latest Roman directive lies in the fact that no discussion with the Orthodox Churches took place before it was distributed. A lesson that both sides -- East and West -- need to remember is that statements made in the spirit of the Pharisee, that is, accusatory, condescending, prideful, insensitive, and such, erode the fragile steps of reconciliation.

I hope the Vatican realizes that they need to clarify their statement. I am the president of the Eastern Orthodox Clergy Conference in San Diego. I am active in the Society of St. John Chrysostom and have attended the Orientale Lumen Conference for the past three years. If Rome really believes that the Orthodox "lack something in their condition," then I see no point in continuing dialogue.

Yet, God can make all things new. A return by the Vatican to the spirit of Pope John Paul's letter that fostered the dialogue between East and West can correct its recent missteps:

For us, the men and women of the East are a symbol of the Lord who comes again. We cannot forget them, not only because we love them as brothers and sisters redeemed by the same Lord, but also because a holy nostalgia for the centuries lived in the full communion of faith and charity urges us and reproaches us for our sins and our mutual misunderstandings: we have deprived the world of a joint witness that could, perhaps, have avoided so many tragedies and even changed the course of history.

Let's hope the Vatican sees its error.

REFERENCES

Morelli, G. (2006a, March 10). Sinners in the Hands of an Angry or Gentle God. http://www.orthodoxytoday.org/articles6/MorelliHumility.php.

Morelli, G. (2006b, September 24). Smart Parenting IV: Cuss Control. http://www.orthodoxytoday.org/articles6/MorelliParenting4.php.

Morelli, G. (2006c, October 31) Conflict and Disagreement: An
Analysis of Pope Benedict's Remarks Based on "The Parable of the
Publican and the Pharisee" and Conflict Management. http://www.orthodoxytoday.org/articles6/MorelliIslam.php.

Morelli, G. (2006d, December 21). The Ethos of Orthodox Christian Healing. http://www.orthodoxytoday.org/articles6/MorelliHealing.php.

V. Rev. Fr. George Morelli Ph.D. is a licensed Clinical Psychologist and Marriage and Family Therapist, Coordinator of the Chaplaincy and Pastoral Counseling Ministry of the Antiochian Orthodox Christian Archdiocese, (www.antiochian.org/counse...) and Religion Coordinator (and Antiochian Archdiocesan Liaison) of the Orthodox Christian Association of Medicine, Psychology and Religion. Fr. George is Assistant Pastor of St. George's Antiochian Orthodox Church, San Diego, California.

A Theophany Within

Do you ever ask: "If Jesus is who He says He is, why don't I see Him more clearly?" St Thomas had the same doubts when his brother disciples told him that Jesus had resurrected. Jesus heard his plea and answered it: "Then He (Jesus) said to Thomas, "Put your finger here, and see my hands; and put out your hand, and place it in my side; do not be faithless, but believing ... Thomas answered him, 'My Lord and my God!'" (John 20 27-28).

Yet if Thomas got such a visible sign, why does it seem we are left in the dark? Could it be that we don't know how to listen? Look at communication in today's world for example. So much of the media is overpowering. It ranges from the lyrics of rap music to the pulsating beat of rock and roll, to commercials played everywhere it seems, even to muzak in bathrooms and television in fast food shops -- all of it is calculated to appeal to the senses. Some Christian churches even lace their services with splashy music and Las Vegas style light shows. What does any of this have to do with God?

We have all this noise and distraction because the world wants to hold us captive, and the path to our incarceration is through the senses. The human body can be captivated by the senses. Sounds, smells, tastes, and what our eyes behold can become an intoxicating delight. And when it wears off, it takes more sounds, stronger smells and tastes, and greater visual stimulation to renew the intoxication.

But whose work is this: God's or the evil one?

The Church Fathers noted the problem years ago. St. Ilias the Presbyter wrote: " ... the light of the spirit has grown dim within the soul, whereas the light of the sensible world shines more brightly within it" (Philokalia III). What St. Ilias means is that a person drunk on sensory stimulation will crowd out the light that burns naturally in the soul. Push it aside far enough and the light will dim to almost nothing.

How do we find God? "God is a Spirit, and those who worship Him must worship Him in Spirit and in Truth," the Scripture teaches (John 4:24). The worship begins with a silencing of the heart and mind so that the soul can receive Him. St. Didochos of Photiki said: ".. but where there is richness of the Spirit, no speech is possible. At such a time the soul is drunk with the love of God and, with voice silent, delights in His glory" (Philokalia I). He means that the focusing on sensory things alone cannot lead us to God. Further, when the focusing becomes extreme we enter idolatry.

The self-manifestation of God is not apprehended through sensory experience but in the stillness of the soul. Encountering God is by necessity quiet and peaceful. God comes to us when we prepare ourselves to receive Him by bringing our senses under control, by elimination the noise and clamor in the world, and by refusing the intoxication the world offers through our senses.

And this manifestation replicates in its own way the physical manifestation of Jesus as the Son of God at Theophany (the Baptism of Christ): " ... And I saw the Spirit of God descending like a dove, and alighting on Him; and lo, a voice from heaven, saying, "This is my beloved Son, with whom I am well pleased" (Matthew 3:16-17).

Sensation Seeking

How do we break free of sensory captivation? Contemporary empirical findings in scientific psychology lend insight into how this psycho-spiritual intoxication takes place. Zuckerman (1993) found a personality dimension he termed sensation seeking. Persons scoring high on this dimension have a "generalized preference" for high levels of sensory stimulation. They constantly look for fresh exhilarating experiences. Zuckerman reported a strong genetic predisposition for this personality trait.

High sensation seekers are inclined 1) to thrill and adventure seeking such as skydiving; 2) to unusual activities such as wild parties; 3) at the extremes are usually disinhibited thus prone to heavy drinking, drug use, gambling and sexual experimentation; and 4) exhibit a susceptibility to boredom with low tolerance for routine repetition. While few persons are at the extreme, even those moderately inclined toward sensation seeking prefer external sensory stimulation over internal reflection. It is easy to see how such individual can miss the unknown God who reveals Himself in silence. They simply don't know this dimension of human experience.

What might be helpful for anyone inclined to sensation seeking is to develop a spiritual rule. Many Church Fathers have pointed out that it is better to say one prayer deep from the heart, than many prayers in a routine and superficial way. Persons disposed to high sensation seeking might keep their prayers, meditations, and quite times short but open to God revealing Himself, and in particular listening for His voice.

Theophany and Free Will

God reveals His Son in the silence of our soul. Why might God do this? One reason is that communion with God requires our active participation. Our will must be conformed to God's will.

Take the Holy Scriptures. Many passages are not clear cut. Under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit guidance our Church and the Holy Fathers, we have to struggle to make sense of them. When we look at the Lord's life as recorded in scripture for example, we always see an ambiguity. Almost everything Our Lord did demand an interpretation that we must provide. Our inner orientation -- our capacity to see and understand -- must be developed in order to see who the Lord really is. The Pharisees, Sadducees, and Scribes continually saw the work of Jesus but concluded He was a malefactor. Those with purity of heart saw the same works but concluded that Jesus was the Son of God, the Good God who loves mankind. Which ones are we?

Meditate on the Troparion (hymn) of the Theophany:

Lord, when You were baptized in the Jordan, the worship of the Trinity was made manifest. For the voice of the Father gave witness to You, calling You Beloved; and the Spirit, in the form of a dove, confirmed the certainty of His words. Glory to You, Christ our God, who appeared and enlightened the world.

If we experience the Theophany within ourselves, we will see the Lord all around us. The psalmist says "The heavens declare the glory of God, and the firmament declares His handiwork (Psalm 19:1). If we listen on the inside, we will see clearly what lies on the outside. The senses are freed and clamor of the world loses its power over our minds and hearts so that the Lord might reveal Himself to us more and more.

REFERENCES

Bobrinskoy, B. (1999). The Mystery of the Trinity. Crestwood, NY: St. Vladimir's Seminary Press.

Horvath, P., & Zuckerman, M. (1993). Sensation Seeking, Risk Appraisal, and Risky Behavior. Personality and Individual Differences, 14(1), 1147-1152.

Lossky, V. (1978). Orthodox Theology: An Introduction. Crestwood, NY: St. Vladimir's Seminary Press.

Morelli, G. (2006d, May 08). Orthodoxy and the Science of Psychology. http://www.orthodoxytoday.org/articles6/MorelliOrthodoxPsychology.php.

Palmer, G.E.H., Sherrard, P., & Ware, K. (Eds). (1979). The Philokalia: The Complete Text Compiled by St. Nikodimos of the Holy Mountain and St. Makarious of Corinth (Vol. I) .Winchester, MA: Faber and Faber.

Palmer, G.E.H., Sherrard, P., & Ware, K. (Eds.). (1986). The Philokalia: The Complete Text Compiled by St. Nikodimos of the Holy Mountain and St. Makarios of Corinth: Vol.3. Winchester, MA: Faber and Faber.

Zuckerman, M. (1991). Psychobiology of Personality. NT: Cambridge University Press.

V. Rev. Fr. George Morelli Ph.D. is a licensed Clinical Psychologist and Marriage and Family Therapist, Coordinator of the Chaplaincy and Pastoral Counseling Ministry of the Antiochian Orthodox Christian Archdiocese, (www.antiochian.org/counse...) and Religion Coordinator (and Antiochian Archdiocesan Liaison) of the Orthodox Christian Association of Medicine, Psychology and Religion. Fr. George is Assistant Pastor of St. George's Antiochian Orthodox Church, San Diego, California.

Posted: 12-Jan-07

The Ethos of Orthodox Christian Healing

An early draft of this paper was presented at the Society of St. John Chrysostom -- Western Region Meeting on "Healing in the Eastern and Western Church" at Prince of Peace Benedictine Abbey, Oceanside, California, November 18, 2006.

The Fall of Man

To understand healing we must first understand sin, illness, death and love, a task that brings us back to Genesis. Genesis reveals that God created the world as good. He set mankind as the crown of His creation. Genesis describes the creation of man in this way:

In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth (Genesis 1:1) ... God created man in His own image; in the image of God He created him; male and female He created them" (Genesis 1:27) ... the Lord God formed man of the dust of the ground, and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life; and man became a living being (Genesis 2:7).

Mankind is meant for paradise, and paradise is understood as life in and with God that lasts for all eternity. Who then, caused the rupture that introduced sin, illness and death into the world? The answer is the evil one, Satan, and his cohorts. Satan is the destroyer of goodness and order, the liar who fatally rebelled against God and looks forward only to eternal judgment and condemnation. The scriptures tell us that the devil has "sinned from the beginning" (1 John 3:8). Jesus told the Pharisees:

You are of your father the devil, and the desires of your father you want to do. He was a murderer from the beginning, and does not stand in the truth, because there is no truth in him. When he speaks a lie, he speaks from his own resources, for he is a liar and the father of it" (John 8:44).

How did the rupture occur? It happened when Satan tempted Adam and Eve when they ate of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil. The tree was planted in the primordial garden with fruit that God commanded was never to be eaten. "Of every tree of the garden you may freely eat; but of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil you shall not eat, for in the day that you eat of it you shall surely die" (Genesis 2:16-17). Satan argued that if they ate of the fruit they would " ... be as gods, knowing good and evil" (Genesis 3:7). We know our ancestors failed to obey and the entire material creation fell into disorder.

The Fathers of the Church wrote that the lie that Satan proffered hid a crucial dimension of God's original commandment not to eat of the fruit. Yes, Satan was correct in telling Adam and Eve that they would become like gods and therefore have knowledge of good and evil, but he withheld that they would also become captive to the evil. As for Adam and Eve, the nature of their sin was that they looked to the creation rather than the Creator for the life (which includes knowledge and wisdom) that can only come from God. In fact, the Fathers posit that if Adam and Eve had obeyed God, they would have matured in understanding and discernment and eventually would have come to know good and evil without becoming captive to the evil.

The result of their disobedience was catastrophic. Adam and Eve lost the Spirit of God and became subject instead to the dust out of which they were created. Man became bound to the earth rather than its master. He was expelled from the Garden because knowing now only separation from God, he could no longer be part of its primordial harmony. Genesis tells of the tragedy:

God told them, "'For dust you are, and to dust you shall return" ... Therefore the LORD God sent him out of the garden of Eden to till the ground from which he was taken. So He drove out the man; and He placed cherubim at the east of the garden of Eden, and a flaming sword which turned every way, to guard the way to the tree of life (Genesis 3:11, 19, 23, 24).

St. Gregory of Nyssa lamented, "Thus man, who was so great and precious, as the Scriptures call him, fell from the value he had by nature ... by his sin, (and) clothed himself in an image that is of clay and mortal" (Musurillo, 1979).

Restoration and Healing

But God did not leave Adam and Eve desolate. He began the restoration of Adam and Eve (and all humanity) only moments after their expulsion. It started with the clothing of Adam and Eve in animal skins and continued through the covenant with Noah. It follows with a covenant that God made with Abraham that through him God would send a savior to heal the catastrophic rupture. It is completed in the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ. St. Basil expressed it beautifully: "Thou didst send forth the Prophets; Thou didst perform mighty works by the saints ... who foretold unto us the salvation which was to come" (Anaphora Prayers of St. Basil Liturgy).

We share in Adam and Eve's original sin, although the Eastern churches' understanding differs from the Western churches' in some crucial ways. The Eastern Church does not teach that we inherit the guilt of Adam. Rather, we share in the sin of Adam in that we are born into a world where the consequences of sin prevail. These consequences are not only the outward brokenness like disease and death, but interior disorder as well. Our nature is corrupted. We are subject to temptation, prone to sin, and share in death.

The different emphasis on original sin in the Orthodox Church affects how the death of Christ impacts the redemption of mankind as well. Everyone is familiar with the verse taken from the Gospel of St. John that affirms God's great love for mankind by the coming of His Son: "For God so loved the world that He gave His only begotten Son, that whoever believes in Him should not perish but have everlasting life" (John 3:16). Christ's voluntary sacrifice on the cross was not to satisfy God's vengeance, a desire to see sin punished (what Western theologians call "substitutionary atonement"). Rather Christ's death on the cross enabled Christ to enter death and destroy it, as evidenced by rising from the dead once and for all.

The rupturing of the relationship Adam had with God that affected all subsequent generations is the source of sickness and death. Christ, as the One who overcame death, restores the relationship by destroying death. He becomes the mediator between mankind and the Father, the bridge over the unbridgeable chasm, the conqueror of death, the Savior of soul and body. His obedience unto righteousness (Christ was the only man not to break the Law of Moses) annuls the penalty of death that fell on disobedient Adam, thereby making His death completely voluntary - a sacrifice -- and thus making His resurrection from death possible.

St. Paul's message to the Romans summarizes the Orthodox view of illness and death and hints at how healing enters the world:

Knowing this, that our old man was crucified with Him, that the body of sin might be done away with, that we should no longer be slaves of sin. For he who has died has been freed from sin. Now if we died with Christ, we believe that we shall also live with Him, knowing that Christ, having been raised from the dead, dies no more. Death no longer has dominion over Him. For the death that He died, He died to sin once for all; but the life that He lives, He lives to God (Romans 6:6-10).

We enter into the life of Christ through baptism; entering the waters enables a person to enter into the death of Christ and be raised in the likeness of His resurrection (Romans 6:1-10). Baptism is the first step in the restoration of body and soul, a return in some measure to the communion with God that Adam and Eve experienced before their disobedience. The promise from God is that this journey may end in His Kingdom, although this end is by no means automatic or guaranteed apart from testing and trial. Our faith in God has to be proven, that is, refined in the fire of tribulation as St. Peter taught, and not be found lacking. St. John summed it up in the final book of scripture: "He who has an ear, let him hear what the Spirit says to the churches. To him who overcomes I will give to eat from the tree of life, which is in the midst of the Paradise of God" (Revelation 2:7). The man who hears and obeys is the man who will receive the promise of eternal life at the last day.

Healing in the Orthodox Church

In the Orthodox Church, healing of the soul ranks higher than the healing of the body. In fact, the healing of the body is offered as a sign of His mercy and blessing to the person experiencing God's healing and to inspire others to do His will. Healing is to be sought both through prayer and the application of physical sciences, but no complete healing is possible apart from the final resurrection of an individual because the sentence of death still reigns in the mortal body. Further, not all people are healed, despite fervent pleas to God and the applications of the best medicines. Sometime illness needs to be endured.

The Church Fathers give us insight into how we can use illness and the acceptance of mortality (death) to grow in Christ. St Ilias the Presbyter wrote: "Suffering deliberately embraced cannot free the soul totally from sin unless the soul is also tried in the fire of suffering that comes unchosen. For the soul is like a sword: if it does not go 'through fire and water' (Psalm 66:12, LXX) -- that is, by suffering deliberately embraced and suffering that comes unchosen -- it cannot but be shattered by the blows of fortune" (Ilias the Presbyter, Philokalia III). We have to acquire an attitude of embracing both illness and the inevitable death of earthly life as part of God's divine will for us. This is true not only for the sick, but also their loved ones who share in the suffering. In those cases where a healing does occur, it happens so that we may love God even more.

Sometimes physical sickness is necessary to heal the soul. St. Maximus the Confessor wrote, "Suffering cleanses the soul infected with the filth of sensual pleasure and detaches it completely from material things by showing it the penalty incurred as a result of its affection for them. This is why God in His justice allows the devil to afflict men with torments." The acceptance of our illness and death as God's will is one means by which we embrace the saving grace of Christ. This is a hard saying to accept, but those who have suffered in Christ testify to its truth. Could we not allow that sometimes God understands what we do not understand?

The subordination of physical to spiritual healing is derived from the Epistle of James. St. James said:

Is there any one among you suffering? Let him pray ... Is any among you sick? Let him call for the presbyters of the Church, and let them pray over him, anointing him with oil in the name of the Lord; and the prayer of faith will save the sick man, and the Lord will raise him up; and if he has committed sins, he will be forgiven (James 4.13 - 15).

The Service of Holy Unction

The distinction between spiritual and physical healing is revealed liturgically as well. Orthodox Christians perform the Mystery of Holy Unction for the healing of soul and body and for forgiveness of sins. It is usually celebrated during Wednesday of Holy Week, but can be performed any time. During the service epistle and gospel readings are read, prayers are said, oil is blessed, and each worshipper is anointed with the holy oil as the priest says: "The blessing of Our Lord God and Savior Jesus Christ: for the healing of soul and body ... "

The prayer of the blessing of the oil illustrates the goal of physical healing: that those anointed can glorify God and thus be spiritually healed. The prayer in part reads:

O Lord, who through thy mercies and bounties heals the disorders of our souls and bodies: Do thou Thyself, O Master, also sanctify this oil, that it may be effectual for those who are anointed therewith, unto healing and unto relief from every passion, of every defilement of flesh and spirit, and every ill; that thereby may be glorified Thine all holy Name, of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit: now and ever, and unto ages of ages . Amen.

Ideally, seven priests perform this Holy Mystery, but fewer, or even a single priest, can celebrate it. It is offered to the healthy as well as the sick for all are diseased in some way.

The Holy Unction Service goes back to the earliest days of Christianity. Orthodox Liturgical scholar Fr. Alkiviadis Calivas stated: "In ancient Christian literature one may find indirect testimonies of the Mystery of Unction in Saint Irenaeus of Lyons and in Origen. Later there are clear testimonies of it in Saints Basil the Great and John Chrysostom, who have left prayers for the healing of the infirm which entered later into the rite of Unction; and likewise in Saint Cyril of Alexandria" (http://www.goarch.org/en/special/lent/holy_wednesday/learn/).

Sometimes the emphasis on spiritual healing is taken to mean that attempts at physical healing should be minimized. This is a grave misconception. In the Orthodox moral tradition both spiritual and physical healing should be brought to God. The foundation of this misconception rests in ideas that faith somehow stands in opposition to science. It doesn't. God is the source of both faith and science and in the end no final conflict exists between the two. Orthodox theologian and ethicist Fr. Stanley S. Harakas wrote:

Medical treatment is also seen as a human cooperation with God's healing purposes and goals. In fact, all of Orthodox teaching recognizes a place for human effort, striving and cooperating with God's will. Technically known as "synergy," this belief requires the exercise of human talents and abilities for salvation, for spiritual growth, for moral behavior, for achievement of human potential ... So, in principle, the use of healing, medicines ... even surgical operations have generally been understood throughout history in the Church to be appropriate, fitting and desirable ways of cooperating with God in the healing of human illnesses (http://www.goarch.org/en/ourfaith/articles/article8076.asp)

Mankind: Made in God's image and called to be like Him

The foundation of this "synergy" (the cooperation of man with God) is recorded in the book of Genesis: "Let us make man in our image, after our likeness; and let them have dominion over all the earth ..." (Genesis 1:26). McGuckin (2004) noted that several Greek Fathers defined the term "image" by relating it to Adam's naming of the animals, thereby linking an attribute of the image of God in man to "mankind's dominion over the created order." In other words, the patristic exegesis highlights the different characteristics that man possesses over the animals such as understanding, rationality, and intelligence to conclude that these characteristics define in some measure the term "image of God."

Evagrios the Solitary also, albeit indirectly, affirmed that the intellect reflects the image of God in man. When examining the causes of sin he asked, "Is it the intellect?" only to answer the query with another question, "But then how can the intellect be the image of God?" (Philokalia I). (Later he answered his question that sin is a "freely chosen noxious pleasure.")

St. Maximus the Confessor, too, elevated intellect as an attribute of the image of God in man. "Naturally endowed with the holiness of the Divine Image, the intelligence urges the soul to conform itself by its own free choice to the divine likeness" (Philokalia II).

Of all the Church Fathers however, St. John of Damascus is the most clear:

As a golden seal to this plain homily, we will add a brief account of the way in which that which is most precious of all that God has created -- the noetic and intelligent creature, man -- has been made, alone among created beings, in God's image and likeness (cf. Genesis 1:26). First, everyman is said to be made in the image of God as regards the dignity of his intellect and soul ... and endowed with free will ...

Further, St. John of Damascus taught that the gift of the intellect carries with it a responsibility toward holiness:

Every man possesses that which is according to the image of God, "for the gifts of God are irrevocable" (cf. Romans 11:29). But only a few -- those who are virtuous and holy and have imitated the goodness of God to the limit of human powers -- possess that which is according to the likenesses of God" (Philokalia III).

St. Nikitas Stithatos discussed how the responsibility to develop and use the gift of the intellect is met only by living in conformity with God's will:

God is ... intellect, beyond every intellect ... He is light and the source of blessed light. He is wisdom, intelligence and spiritual knowledge. If on account of your purity these qualities have been bestowed on you and are richly present in you, then that within you which accords with the image of God has been safely preserved and you are now a son of God guided by the Holy Spirit (Romans 8:14) (Philokalia IV).

Clearly, the Church Fathers teach that the intellect is a highly valued characteristic found in man. It is important to note that intellect does not mean high intelligence necessarily, but the faculty of the intellect, namely, the ability to reason, distinguish, create, and all the qualities associated with it. Further, there is a moral imperative implied in their assessment. Since the intellect is a gift from God, we must exercise the intellect to the best of our ability. Failure to responsibly apply our intellect in our lives means we are not conforming to the will of God.

One area where the intellect must be applied is in the contemplation of life around us. Where does the ultimate meaning of the creation and our place in it come from: science and its offshoots including medicine and psychology -- or God? Science is empirical, it measures material objects and defines material processes. It describes the workings of creation but it can say nothing about its meaning and purpose. Materiality and meaning are two different things but nevertheless are woven together as the Psalmist told us: The heavens declare the Glory of God and the firmament proclaims His handiwork ... (Psalm 18:1).

Since the rules that govern the world are written into the very fabric of creation and discerned by the intellect, they can be used for the healing purposes of God. Science and its applications are not static, but dynamic and ever changing, that is refined, as scientists get better at doing the "work of science." Its roots are ancient and continue to grow. The sciences applied to healing in the Early Church were crude in contrast to what we know today, but they were present nonetheless. If by God's will mankind continues for the next five centuries or so, the science (including healing arts) we practice today will look as crude then as the ancient practices look now. The Church Fathers understood this well. St. Gregory of Nyssa said: "Medicine is an example of what God allows men to do when they work in harmony with Him and with one another." Basil of Caesarea said: "God's grace is as evident in the healing power of medicine and its practitioners as it is in miraculous cures" (Demakis 2004).

A Short History of Healing in the Church

It is not overstating the case to say that the emphasis on the healing of persons is one of the great gifts that Christianity has given the world. It started with Christ. The Gospels record numerous instances where Christ healed all manner of diseases, both spiritual and physical. St. Luke, himself a physician, recorded the most in his Gospel, and then later showed in his book "The Acts of the Apostles" how this power of healing was granted to the Apostles. It should be no surprise that at the end of the persecutions of the first early centuries, healing arts were developed and flourished even to this day.

Orthodox Christianity has a rich history of healers revered as saints. Twin brothers Sts. Cosmas and Damian were physicians practicing during the reign of Diocletian and Maximianos in the era before the persecutions ended. Born in Arabia, they became known as "Anargyroi" (penniless) because they refused to accept any money for their service. They are venerated in both the Eastern and Western churches, but in the East they also carry the title "Wonderworker" because in addition to healing the body, they also cast out demons and removed other darkness from the souls of men just as Christ had done. They attributed their healing gifts to Christ, whom they called the "Great Physician," and regarded themselves simply as Christ's instruments of healing, comfort, witness, and sanctification.

Orthodoxy had other great healer saints as well. Hronos (1999) detailed the life of St. Luke as well as twenty physicians of which eighteen were missionaries and two were priests. One of the priests was St. Sampson, the "Innkeeper and Physician of Constantinople" whose feast day is celebrated on June 17. St. Sampson was originally from Rome at the time when Saint Justinian the Great reigned, but settled in Constantinople. He became so respected for his healing power, prayer, virtue, and love of the sick and poor that Patriarch Menas of Constantinople ordained him a priest. In humility he often hid his prayerful healing by dispensing medication. He healed the Emperor Justinian who in gratitude donated a grand healing center to St. Samson that came to be known as "The Hospice of Samson."

Healing in Byzantium

In the fourth century various healing centers were opened and administrated by the Orthodox Church, including homes for the poor, orphans, aged and hospitals (Demakis, 2004). Many of these centers were associated with monasteries. The health care workers, the physicians, nurses, and psychologists of the day were often the monks themselves. St. Basil of Caesarea (370-379) was trained in medicine and was reported to have worked with the monks in ministering to the ill and infirm.

St. John Chrysostom as Patriarch of Constantinople (390) used the wealth of the Church to open hospitals and other philanthropic institutions, which earned him great love from the people. Within two centuries, the rapid growth of these centers necessitated state funding although the Church retained the active administration and care-giving in the arrangement. Emperor Justinian moved the most important physicians into the hospitals, which enhanced the reputation of these centers (Demakis 2004).

The Pantocrator Monastery was a large healing center. Its Typikon (the book that explains how the monastery should be ordered) reveals that their benevolent work was complex and extensive. A few sections include:

External Relations
The remarkable hospital (xenon) associated with this foundation capped a long tradition of institutional philanthropy observed in these documents since Mount Tmolos in the late tenth century. Chapters throughout provide regulations for the hospital, the old age home, and lepers sanatorium.

1. The Hospital
   The hospital was presided over by an overseer (nosokomos) and had sixty beds divided into five wards, one of which was to be reserved for women. Two non-resident doctors (serving in alternate months) and a complement of assistants and orderlies staffed each ward. The doctors were not to undertake any outside work even for unpaid service by imperial command. The women's ward had an extra female doctor. Four extra doctors including two surgeons staffed an outpatient department. Two of the outpatient doctors took turns providing services to the monks of the monastery in alternate months.
   There were also various service personnel, including a chief pharmacist and three druggists as well as two priests stationed in the hospital chapel. A teacher of medicine was to "teach the principles of medical knowledge" to student doctors, who were apparently chosen from among the hospital's auxiliaries. Salaries for the various hospital personnel were detailed as well as the supplies needed by the infirmarian and the superintendent, who served as a cellarer. The Emperor provided regulations for liturgical services, burials, and commemorations of the deceased.

2. The Old Age Home
   The director (gerokomos) of the old age home was chosen from among the monks of the monastery. With the assistance of six orderlies, he would care for twenty-four aged and infirm men in the home; the healthy were specifically excluded, regardless of social class. As in the hospital, a chapel staffed by a priest and reader was available to residents. The emperor provided cash and in-kind allowances for both the staff and the residents.

3. The Sanatorium
   A lepers sanatorium was established at a site away from the monastery. The emperor sought a "special remembrance" from its residents, but unlike patients in the hospital, he does not ask them to come to a church to pray for his soul.

4. Routine Charitable Donations
   Less institutionalized forms of philanthropy were practiced at the foundation as well. A bakery (mankipeion) provided bread to nourish the residents of both the hospital and the old age home. For non-residents, there were to be charitable distributions at the gate in honor of the foundation's benefactors. Leftovers were to be collected for this purpose after both the midday and evening meals." (The entire typikon can be found at: http://www.stmaryofegypt.org/typika/typ038.html.)

Demakis (2004) notes five characteristic traits shared by the physician-saints:

1. They were committed to Christ and were holy men before they became healers.

2. They lived as deeply committed Christians in personal prayer, meditation, fasting, and actively prayed for their patients.

3. They were outstanding physicians often "first in their medical school class". Medical science was regarded as a serious academic discipline.

4. They had a "deep and abiding love" for mankind and strove to see "the image of Christ" in every patient. This was shown in their actions including long working hours, refusal of any payment, turning their homes into hospitals, and the personal care they showed toward their patients ("fed and cared for their patients personally").

5. They attributed their healing skills and medical successes to God.

The Church as Hospital

The spiritual dimension of healing

St. John Chrysostom presented us with the idea that the entire Church of Christ is a hospital, thereby expressing in clearer theological terms the relationship between the healing of body and soul practiced by the early healers. The Parable of the Good Samaritan is the model St. John used (Luke 1:33ff) where the Good Samaritan exemplifies Christ who, as the Great Physician, comes to broken mankind (the man beat by robbers lying on the road) in order to bring healing. The inn in which the Good Samaritan delivered the suffering man is the Church (Vlachos, 1994, 1998).

The interrelationship between body and soul is noted in almost every liturgical prayer. Most corporate prayer begins with the Trisagion (Thrice-Holy) prayer that makes the relationship clear: "All-holy Trinity, have mercy on us, Lord, cleanse us from our sins. Master, pardon our iniquities. Holy God, visit and heal our infirmities for thy names sake" (emphasis added).

Baptism

In fact, the spiritual dimension underlying any healing is most clearly revealed in the foundational sacrament of the Christian life. Baptism, as St. Paul taught in Romans 6, is the new birth, the starting point of life in Christ through an entry into Christ's death and a raising into the "likeness" of His resurrection. The baptismal service begins with several prayers of exorcism that are meant to heal the person of illness and infirmity brought about by the rebellion of the Devil as indicated above. Originally deacons read the exorcism prayers but in modern times the priest who performs the baptism reads the prayers. The prayers prepare the baptismal candidate to enter life in Christ and thereby receive the power (through the Holy Spirit received in baptism) to detach from the power of evil that might rule in his soul. These prayers and the baptism that follows are actually a profound healing of the soul's attachment to untoward things, thereby enabling it to attain freedom.

Exorcism

Sometimes the healing of the soul calls for drastic measures. A guide for clergy of the Orthodox Church is the "Book of Needs" which includes prayers for expulsion of demons from the soul and for protection from such evil. Clergy entering this dimension of spiritual reality must exercise great discernment since many illnesses have natural causes and a misdiagnosis is easily made. Further, the mental status of anyone requesting such prayers also has to be considered. Pastorally, the best practice is to say a simple prayer for those requesting it, such as those found in the exorcism ritual in Holy Baptism. St. Basil, St. John Chrysostom, and several other noted saints wrote these prayers.

A prayer by St. John Chrysostom that is included in "The Book of Needs" concisely states the goal of our earthly life:

O Lord Jesus Christ ... We beseech You, look mercifully upon him (or her), and in your great love grant him (or her) relief from his (or her) pain ... that restored to the vigor of health, he (or she) may ... serve you faithfully and gratefully all his (or her) life, and become heir of Your Kingdom, For You are the Physician of our souls and bodies, O Christ ... "

Another exorcism prayer written by St. John Chrysostom reads: "Everlasting God ... command these evil and impure spirits to withdraw from soul and body ... so he (she) may live a holy, righteous and devout life deserving of the sacred Mysteries of Your only-begotten Son our God (Book of Needs, A Monk of St. Tikhon's Monastery 1987).

Holy Eucharist

The Holy Eucharist (Holy Communion) continues the healing that began in Holy Baptism. The Eucharist conjoins us to the Great Physician, a point expressed in the liturgical prayer that is read immediately before the elevation of the bread and wine: "We give thanks unto thee, O King invisible, who by thy measureless power hast made all things ... look down from heaven upon those who have bowed their heads unto thee ... distribute these Gifts here spread forth, unto all of us for good ... heal the sick, thou who art the physician of souls and bodies."

Healing with Christ: Victory

Some psychologists, such as Viktor Frankl (1959, 1969, 1978), saw illness and the passage into death apart from any transcendent reference and therefore without any enduring meaning or purpose. In this view, human healing has only a relative value since death prevails in the end. Healing, when it occurs, has only a temporary meaning since life itself is merely a temporary sojourn (Morelli, 2006a,b).

The Christian view however, sees an eternal dimension to all illness and healing. The suffering of Christ on the cross for example, has eternal ramifications in that the power of sin and death was destroyed when Christ destroyed death by being resurrected from the dead. St. Basil's anaphora prayer (the prayer read before the consecration of the bread and wine in the Orthodox Divine Liturgy) reads: "Having descended into hell through the Cross, that He (Christ) might fill all things with Himself, He loosed the pains of death, and rose again from the dead on the third day, making a way for all flesh through the resurrection from the dead."

Human healing, then, when referenced to the victory of Christ over death, takes on an eternal meaning and purpose: chiefly, to partake of the deeper life found in God, to rise above the brokenness, sin, and death that holds the world in bondage since the sin of Adam and Eve long ago.

An Ideomelon (hymn) written by St. John of Damascus and read during the Orthodox funeral service sums it up clearly. First the futility of life when viewed apart from the hope Christ offers is recounted: "I called to mind the Prophet, as he cried: I am earth and ashes; and I looked again into the graves and beheld the bones laid bare, and I said: Who then is the king or the warrior, the rich man or the needy, the upright or the sinner?" In modern parlance we could say: "Is that all there is?" But the prayer does not end there. It concludes: "Yet, O Lord, give rest unto Thy servant with the righteous." Later in the funeral service we pray, "May Christ give thee rest in the land of the living, and open unto thee the gates of Paradise and make thee a citizen of His kingdom." The ultimate healing is victory over illness and death and leads us into eternal life. "Behold, I make all things new," (Revelation 21:3-5).

REFERENCES

Demakis J. (2004). Historical Precedents for Synergia: Combining Medicine, Diakonia and Sacrament in Byzantine Times. In S. Muse (Ed.), Raising Lazarus: Integral healing in Orthodox Christianity. Brookline, MA: Holy Cross Orthodox Press.

Frankl, V. (1959). Man's Search for Meaning. NY: Simon & Schuster.

Frankl, V. (1969). The Will to Meaning. NY: New American Library.

Frankl, V. (1978). The Unheard Cry for Meaning. NY Simon & Schuster.

Hronas, G. (1999). The Holy Unmercenary Doctors: The Saints Anargyroi, Physicians and Healers of the Orthodox Church. Minneapolis, MN: Light and Life.

McGuckin, J.A. (2004). The Westminster Handbook to Patristic Theology . Louisville, KT: Westminster John Knox Press.

Morelli, G. (2006a). Illness, Death and Life: An Orthodox Perspective. The Handmaiden. 10, 2, 5-10.

Morelli, G (2006b, July 29). Dealing With Brokenness in the World: Psychological Optimism and the Virtue of Hope. http://www.orthodoxytoday...

Musurillo, H. (ed., trans.). From Glory to Glory: Texts from Gregory of Nyssa's Mystical Writings. Crestwood, NY: St. Vladimir's Seminary Press.

Palmer, G.E.H., Sherrard, P. & Ware, K. (Eds). (1979). The Philokalia, Volume 1: The Complete Text; Compiled by St. Nikodimos of the Holy Mountain & St. Markarios of Corinth . London: Faber and Faber.

Palmer, G.E.H., Sherrard, P. & Ware, K. (1981). The Philokalia, Volume 2: The Complete Text; Compiled by St. Nikodimos of the Holy Mountain & St. Markarios of Corinth . London: Faber and Faber.

Palmer, G.E.H., Sherrard, P. & Ware, K. (Eds.). (1986). The Philokalia, Volume 3: The Complete Text; Compiled by St. Nikodimos of the Holy Mountain & St. Markarios of Corinth . London: Faber and Faber.

Palmer, G.E.H., Sherrard, P. & Ware, K. (Eds.). (1995). The Philokalia, Volume 4: The Complete Text; Compiled by St. Nikodimos of the Holy Mountain & St. Markarios of Corinth . London: Faber and Faber.

St. Maximus the Confessor. On Suffering. http://www.orthodoxphotos.com/readings/ambrose/suffering.shtml (2006, February 14).

Vlachos, Bishop Hierotheos, (1994). Orthodox Psychotherapy: The Science of the Fathers. Lavadia, Greece: Birth of the Theotokos Monastery.

Vlachos, Bishop Hierotheos, (1998). The Mind of the Orthodox Church. Lavadia, Greece: Birth of the Theotokos Monastery.

V. Rev. Fr. George Morelli Ph.D. is a licensed Clinical Psychologist and Marriage and Family Therapist, Coordinator of the Chaplaincy and Pastoral Counseling Ministry of the Antiochian Orthodox Christian Archdiocese, (www.antiochian.org/counse...) and Religion Coordinator (and Antiochian Archdiocesan Liaison) of the Orthodox Christian Association of Medicine, Psychology and Religion. Fr. George is Assistant Pastor of St. George's Antiochian Orthodox Church, San Diego, California.

Understanding Clergy Stress: A Psychospiritual Response

By Fr. George Morelli My reflection and meditation while writing this article: "Physician heal yourself" (Luke. 4:23). A Short Overview of Stress In psychological terms, stress is any circumstance or event that threatens (or is perceived to threaten) one's usual adaptive functioning or lies beyond one's perceived coping capabilities. In spiritual terms, stress is considered a threat to one's spiritual well being and includes: interruption of prayer life, a sense of loss of God's love and care, and a lack of trust in God and in His Church. Generally speaking, stress is divided into two major categories: 1) traumatic and acute stress, and 2) chronic stress. Traumatic and acute stress is defined as a reaction to a specific trauma or stressor (American Psychiatric Association DSM-IV-TR). It is a diagnostic psychiatric category consisting of either Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) or Acute Stress Disorder (ASD), and encompasses such events include as exposure to the serious injury and death during accidents, combat and disasters, physical attack, sexual assault, terminal illness, concentration camps and solitary confinement. The usual response is fear, helplessness, horror, imagery, or sensory re-experiencing of the event and increased agitation and arousal. This category lies beyond the scope of this essay. Chronic stress is the everyday events that become stressors when they are repeatedly encountered (McEwen and Lasley, 2002). The long duration and ongoing repetition of these events sensitize the body stress reaction system and make the body more likely to trigger a stress reaction. The events include everyday occurrences and other common hassles, trials and tribulations of life (Kohn, Lafreniere, & Gurevich, 1991; Pillow, Zautra, & Sandler, 1996). Common events include family problems, health concerns, traffic, car breakdowns, missing appointments, and lateness. This type of stress in clergy life is the focus of this paper. Orthodox clergy face the same chronic stress events as the general population. In addition they have the events common to a hierarchal church: the episcopacy (from above) and a parish council (from below) both often presuming they have control over the priest. (Specific circumstances are discussed below.) On the surface these common events may appear benign but when faced day after day for long durations they tend to have a cumulative effect (Delongis, Folkman & Lazarus, 1988; Seta, Seta & Whang, 1991). In fact, the physiological, psychological and spiritual effects are similar to the effects of PTSD and ASD mentioned above. The Multifactorial Underpinning of Stress The reactions that individuals have to stress events are due to a multiplicity of factors. They include: biology (body stress reaction system), cognition (appraisal, Morelli, 2006a), emotion (depression, Morelli, 2006d), environmental (the events listed above), personality (optimism, Morelli, 2006d), socio-cultural (mainstream or particular ethnic background) and behavioral (coping strategies, Morelli, 2006c). Stress affects the body in different ways. The nervous system has two basic components: the Central Nervous System (CNS) composed of brain and spinal column, and the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) which includes the outside of the body, brain and spinal column. This is broken into the Somatic Nervous system (SNS) such as nerve endings in the hands and arms etc. and the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS). The ANS in turn has two components: the Parasympathetic and Sympathetic System. The ANS is critical in understanding the body stress reaction system. The ANS is connected to blood vessels, bladder, breathing system, digestive system, glands, and heart. When the body is relaxed and functioning normally, the Parasympathetic System is at work. A major information channel is the neurotransmitter or hormone: acetylcholine. Pupils are constricted, salivation is normal, regular breathing occurs, the heart rate is normal, digestive processes work and the bladder can hold contents. An individual in this state feels relaxed and normal. When the body is stressed, the Sympathetic System is at work. A major information channel is the neurotransmitter or hormone: adrenaline or epinephrine and cortisol. Pupils are dilated, the mouth is dry, rapid breathing and heart rate occurs, digestion is inhibited, increased sweating occurs and bladder contents are subject to involuntary release. The individual in this state feels under tension. Biologists consider that the original reason this system developed in our bodies is to mobilize a fight or flight response under threat. This was an adaptive response to prehistoric predator attack for defense and survival and still used today if engaged in warfare, police activity or self defense. The effects of stress are insidious. They include increased aggression (Berkowitz, 1989); giving up (Seligman, 1990); substance abuse (Peyser, 1993); impaired task performance (Baumeister, 1995); physical, mental and emotional exhaustion (Pines & Aronson, 1988); unhappiness (Heady & Wearing, 1989); anxiety disorders (Lester, Nebel & Baum, 1994); and depression (Gruen, 1993). Various psychosomatic diseases such asthma, eczema, heart disease hives, hypertension, migraine and tension headaches, skin disorders and ulcers have a genetic and physiological etiology but often stress is a psychological exacerbating factor (Creed, 1993). Special Factors Influencing Stress: Control and Support Longitudinal studies started in 1967 and still ongoing at University College London (called the "Whitehall Studies") examine the effects of work control or job control and work support on stress. Two conclusions are particularly straight forward: 1) Low control at work makes an important contribution to the social gradient in mental and physical ill health;" and 2) Another aspect of the work environment that may be stressful is a lack of support from ... managers ... and supervisors (for example, colleagues and immediate line managers are willing to talk about work-related problems), especially when employees do not receive clear and consistent information from their supervisors. The second problem is associated with a twofold increased risk of poor general mental health (Council of Civil Service Unions/Cabinet Office, 2004). High expectancy In a previous article I distinguished between perfectionism versus Christ's counsel to be perfect: "Be you therefore perfect, as also your heavenly Father is perfect" (Matthew 5:48). Following the call to be perfect in Christ is the recognition that ultimately perfection does not come from the individual but from God. "But the God of all grace, who hath called us unto His eternal glory in Christ Jesus, after you have suffered a little, will Himself perfect you and confirm you and establish you" (1 Peter 5:10). I went on to say that trust and patience are two pillars of our journey to perfection. In psychological terms patience is attained by letting go of our unrealistic urgent demanding expectations and substituting reality the way it actually is. Trusting in God and His Divine Providence becomes a powerful technique to challenge self-created urgencies and helps heal the malady of perfectionism (Morelli 2005). But there is a world of difference between striving toward perfection in spiritual terms and perfectionism. Individuals suffering from this malady (perfectionism) are motivated by a fear of failure and a sense of duty. They strive to be in first place in all manner of endeavors but their accomplishments never seem to satisfy them. They believe there is a special quality to acquiring perfection The flawless expression of a particular characteristic such as intelligence or the mistake-free application of a specific skill is the only way to earn self esteem and achieve the sense of being special. Allen (2003) notes: "Perfectionism becomes oppressive (stress) when excessively high standards (expectations) are coupled with ... anxiety." Anyone may be influenced by these variables which are risk factors for stress. Thus individuals in low status occupations with ambiguous or contradictory supervision (as in the Whitehall Studies) would be affected just as easily as a person on a high status or even more demanding environment. Also individuals who have perfectionist expectations are also vulnerable. The Special Condition Of Orthodox Clergy Over the years I have given workshops on clergy stress to Orthodox clergy in most jurisdictions. Invariably three major stressors are reported: 1) Being under the control and misunderstood by the hierarch; 2) being considered an employee of the Parish Council who has the final say in all administrative matters (sometimes even attempting to control the liturgical function of the priest); and 3) for clergy with family the demands of being husband and father. Non-clergy may not consider this a special condition. Overbearing supervisors, misunderstanding and family pressures are encountered in everyday life by many. The difference is in the nature of the priesthood itself and the priest's self-identification as a priest. Just a few reflections on the Counsels of the Christian Priesthood by St. John of Kronstadt demonstrates the nature and responsibility of the Christian priesthood: ... a worthy priest, who, like the seraphim, would burn before the Lord with love, praise and gratitude for the wonders of His mercy and His wisdom ... As a light and heat are inseparable from the sun, so should holiness, a zeal to teach, and love and compassion for all, be inseparable from the person of the priest. For whose dignity does he bear? Christ's ... God Himself ... By myself I am nothing, but by the grace of the priesthood I become the means of healing. Though me the grace of the Holy Spirit gives new life; the Body and Blood of Christ to the faithful ... uniting them with God. St. John told the priests: "You must without ceasing praise and thank the Lord; you must always be striving after holiness, with fasting and abstinence, with humility of mind, and obedience and patience." What could be considered the greatest clergy stressor of all? St. John answered with the admonition of Jesus recorded by St. Luke: "Every one to whom much is given, of him will much be required" (Luke 12:48). St John deserves to be quoted in entirety: From a priest, if he has not learned to be gentle, humble and kind, and to overcome evil with good, a stricter account will be required than from a lay man. For a priest, in his ordination, has been given a great potential for piety, and if he does live accordingly, and fulfill it, he dooms himself through his own negligence and impenitence. Lord forgive me my sins, and teach me to do your will. Dealing with Hierarchs Priests are to obey their bishops as they would Jesus Christ. "Obey your leaders and submit to them; for they are keeping watch over your souls, as men who will have to give account. Let them do this joyfully, and not sadly, for that would be of no advantage to you" (Hebrews 13: 17). St. Ignatius of Antioch from the beginning of church history told priests (and laity) to be: " ... submissive to the bishop as to Jesus Christ ... and also to the presbytery as to the Apostles ... and to respect the deacons ... for without these no Church is recognized" (Chryssavgis 2005). Therefore if a priest is to be zealous and true to their calling there is a great pressure on them to be faithful and submissive to their bishops. This is a divine imperative and far above human striving. The ideal vs. Clergy experience St. Timothy gave us the ideal expected for those in holy orders from bishop to deacon: This is a faithful saying: If a man desires the position of a bishop, he desires a good work. A bishop then must be blameless, the husband of one wife, temperate, sober-minded, of good behavior, hospitable, able to teach; not given to wine, not violent, not greedy for money, but gentle, not quarrelsome, not covetous; one who rules his own house well, having his children in submission with all reverence (for if a man does not know how to rule his own house, how will he take care of the church of God?); not a novice, lest being puffed up with pride he fall into the same condemnation as the devil. Moreover he must have a good testimony among those who are outside, lest he fall into reproach and the snare of the devil. Likewise deacons must be reverent, not double-tongued, not given to much wine, not greedy for money, holding the mystery of the faith with a pure conscience. But let these also first be tested; then let them serve as deacons, being found blameless. Likewise, their wives must be reverent, not slanderers, temperate, faithful in all things. Let deacons be the husbands of one wife, ruling their children and their own houses well. For those who have served well as deacons obtain for themselves a good standing and great boldness in the faith which is in Christ Jesus (1 Timothy 3:1-13). The personality qualities St. Timothy lists include: being serious, not double-tongued, not addicted, temperate, sensible, above reproach, gentle, and not quarrelsome. He implied that the higher the order, the more the qualities should apply. What do I hear from clergy that contributes most to their stress? The first is discrepancies and contradictions between the ideals of how bishops (and priests and deacons) should behave and what they actually do. Examples include (for confidentiality, these examples are composites from the clergy stress workshops I have conducted): A parishioner called the bishop with a complaint. I was called in and yelled at. The bishop never investigated or asked me my side of the story. A rich parish council member wrote to the bishop and accused me of something I had no knowledge of at all. The bishop reprimanded me without even listening to my side of the story. The bishop asked that all parishes in his diocese perform a certain liturgical practice. When I did it, some in the parish complained and he told them they were right. He never even supported or backed me up. The parish council told me "I work for them and that I am their employee ... they don't care what the bishop or I say. Running the parish has nothing to do with Jesus Christ, it is business and that's it." The bishop was supposed to show up for a service but came hours late with everyone in the congregation waiting. He never apologized. Later I found out he was at a sporting event with one of the parish council members. The bishop gave me a mean and harsh toned reprimand in the middle of the Liturgy in front of all my parishioners. How can I do my job without the support of my bishop? The diocese expects its parish assessment. I must pay it or be transferred to "Siberia". The parish council doesn't want to pay it so I pay it out of my own pocket. I can barely feed my family and pay the bills now." Spiritual intervention Short of a spiritual awakening by a miscreant parishioner and an insensitive hierarch, how should a priest respond to the abuse they inflict? The first way is to reference the Gospel of Christ. Abuse, while never excused must nevertheless be endured at times. A priest who brings the contradictions and hypocrisies to Christ can grow in His love. On the Sermon on the Mount Jesus said: "Blessed are those who are persecuted for righteousness' sake, for theirs is the kingdom of heaven ... Blessed are you when men revile you and persecute you and utter all kinds of evil against you falsely on my account. (Matthew 5: 10,11). Jesus also warned his disciples not to expect better treatment than He received: "Truly, truly, I say to you, a servant is not greater than his master; nor is he who is sent greater than he who sent him. If you know these things, blessed are you if you do them" (John 13: 16-17). For the priest who has the love of Christ in his heart, these trials become a means by which Christ can grow more fully in him. The priest's love for others can grow as well. Nevertheless, it must be noted that these trials can cause great anxiety and stress that can result in deleterious consequences for the priest and his family. Further, the potential for spiritual growth does not excuse the malfeasance, hypocrisy and mismanagement that create the trials. Accepting everyday events within the greater will of God A priest can respond to the day to day indignities by recognizing that the events of everyday life are a means of growing in grace. St. Theodore the Recluse wrote: "Life's everyday affairs, upon which the foundation of the home and society depend, are appointed by God, and carrying them out is not a desertion to the sphere of the ungodly, but a continuation of Godly affairs." St. Theophan continued by teaching the priest how this is done: "It is necessary for you to reinterpret everything that comes before your eyes in a spiritual sense ... when you have done this each thing will be like a holy or book or an article in a holy book for you ... Then each thing will lead you to thought about God ... You will walk in the midst of the sensual world as if it were the spiritual realm. Everything will speak to you of God and keep your attention on Him" (St. Theophan the Recluse, 2000). Desert experience St. Theophan's spiritual discipline involves retreating into the quiet places of the heart - an interior desert of sorts. The desert experience is central to eastern Christian spirituality. It traces it roots to the original third century monks who fled to the deserts of Nubia, Scetis and Sinai to escape the hustle and flurry of the world in order to grow closer to Christ. St. Anthony (251-356) is considered the founder of the monastic way of life but he is hardly the first person to go to the desert to find God. Matthew recorded that St. John the Baptist was an early wilderness dweller: In those days came John the Baptist, preaching in the wilderness of Judea, "Repent, for the kingdom of heaven is at hand." For this is he who was spoken of by the prophet Isaiah when he said, "The voice of one crying in the wilderness: Prepare the way of the Lord, make his paths straight." Now John wore a garment of camel's hair, and a leather girdle around his waist; and his food was locusts and wild honey (Matthew 3: 1-4). Consider as well that Our Lord, God and Savior Jesus Christ started his public life in the desert and often returned there for spiritual nourishment. St. Matthew wrote: Then Jesus was led up by the Spirit into the wilderness to be tempted by the devil. And he fasted forty days and forty nights." (Matthew 4: 1-2). St. Luke records "But so much the more the report went abroad concerning him; and great multitudes gathered to hear and to be healed of their infirmities. But he withdrew to the wilderness and prayed." (Lk. 5: 15-16). Desert in the city The desert does not need not to be the dry desolation of Sinai or Nubia. Many spiritual writers indicated that the desert can be found anywhere, even in the middle of an urban civilization. Desert in the City by Carlo Carretto (1979) pointed out that the desert can be found in the recesses of one's home or workplace. A few minutes spent receding from the noise and flurry of work can lead one into contemplative solitude. Caretto wrote: "If someone cannot go to the desert, then the desert can come to him or her. That is why we talk about 'making a desert in the city.'" He described this desert as " ... a quiet place to withdraw so as to find God in silence and prayer ... (a) place where we gather courage, where we pronounce words of truth remembering that God is truth ... (a) place where we purify ourselves and prepare ourselves to act as if touched by the burning coal that was placed by the angel on the lips of the Prophet." The desert is a place of solitude but not isolation. No desert experience is complete apart from communion with the Church and participation the sacred mysteries (sacraments), prayers, and worship. Even the hermits, the Christians who live in solitude in the deserts and caves of today, are members of monastic orders and subject to the discipline and practices of their mother monastery. Consider too St. Mary of Egypt. She lived alone almost her entire life in the desert of Sinai after her conversion yet was given communion and confession by Fr. Zossima (who later wrote the biography of this remarkable woman) whom she regarded as her spiritual father. Psychological aids Recalling what St. Maximus the Confessor taught: "the grace of the most Holy Spirit does not confer wisdom on the Saints without their natural intellect as capacity to receive it." Goodness and wisdom is granted to man by his volitive faculty; God is not coercive and will never confer his gifts on people who refuse to receive them. This points to the radical freedom that man possesses. Thus, when man freely obeys God, he can apply his intellect and acquired knowledge in ways that allow God's grace to work more effectively in his life. For this reason, knowledge of the psychological aids in stress management can be seen not as a replacement for the peace, wisdom, and other attributes conferred by the Holy Spirit, but as a means by which the Spirit can affect peace and order in the believer's life. Stress intervention procedures Basically the psychological stress management procedures can be broken down into cognitive change and stimulus-response management. Cognitive change involves changing the way we perceive that tasks that we are performing. Task misperceptions are actually unproven cognitive assumptions; unspoken assumptions that we have adopted that automatically guide our responses. For example we make demanding expectations of ourselves and standard of performance. The standards for task success are set unrealistically high. Anything short of complete success is perceived as failure. Demanding expectations trigger perfectionism and multi-tasking. In addition, perfectionism thwarts good performance because it triggers stress and anxiety that interferes with the performance itself. (A more detailed discussion is offered in Being Perfect vs. Perfectionism.) Cognitive distortions incite the ruinous perfectionism and must be disputed (Burns, 1989; Ellis & Harper, 1962; Morelli, 2005). Multitasking Multitasking involves doing more than one activity of increasing complexity at a time. Multitasking leads to deleterious task performance (Rubenstein, Meyer and Evans, 2001). As activities and their complexity increase so also does the stress effects. Task-time management One important way to reduce stress is to make a list of task priorities. Obviously some tasks take are more important than others. Effective task-time management however, is not simply a process of moving from high to low priority tasks one at a time. Maximal functioning means interrelating tasks varying in priority over diverse time periods. Research has shown that persons function on various time cycles. Some of these cycles occur within a day, others daily, and some even seasonally. Time-task management involves integrating tasks into these cycles for maximum effectiveness. This integration involves prudence, good judgment and discernment. A good start would be to list task priority according to category such as parish, family, and personal categories. Clergy who devote all of their time to parish activities for example, are making a poor judgment. He has a family to take care of, not to mention his own needs for recreation, rest, and exercise. Every day has to be balanced among all three categories in order for a clergyman to feel well and balanced. "For everything there is a season, and a time for every matter under heaven," Ecclesiastes reminds us (Ecclesiastes 3:1). Procrastination When contemporary research psychologists speak of the cognitive-emotional connection in procrastination, they reaffirm what Jesus taught: "The eye is the lamp of the body. So, if your eye is sound, your whole body will be full of light; but if your eye is not sound, your whole body will be full of darkness. If then the light in you is darkness, how great is the darkness!" (Matthew 6: 22-23). The Church Fathers noted that thoughts evoke feelings and the best way to manage feelings is to discern the cognitive stimuli (the external stimulus) that trigger the thoughts. Two types of feelings that erode inner contentment and harmony (and lead to a loss of spiritual focus) are anger and sensual desire. St Maximus the Confessor counseled: "Do not befoul your intellect by clinging to thoughts filled with anger or sensual desire. Otherwise you will lose your capacity for pure prayer and fall victim to the demon of listlessness" (Philokalia II). Basic intervention techniques involve removing distracters, choosing realistic tasks, challenging oppressive goals, and setting realistic performance appraisals. (An earlier essay The Spiritual Roots of Procrastination [Morelli, 2006c], outlines these psycho-spiritual interventions in more detail.) Distortion challenging If a clergyman is expected to perform tasks that reasonably cannot be executed, the task should be disputed immediately. Certainly some tasks require a high level of functioning and require a high degree of output. There may be a world of difference however, between what a supervisor might prefer a task is completed and how long it will take to reasonably complete it. In my pastoral and clinical counseling experience, I have found that the best method for challenging these demanding expectations is to employ the "facts speak for themselves" technique. For example, if a bishop or other supervisor demands that a task be completed in one week that would reasonably take at least two weeks or more, the unrealistic demand should be challenged immediately. The unreasonable demand creates a great deal of stress. Further, if the supervisor insists on the demand despite evidence that he is being unreasonable, he is skirting the line of psychological abuse. The clergyman should respond by outlining the "facts," that is, the steps required to complete the task and then ask the supervisor for further instruction. This counsel of course presumes the clergyman is working hard, not slacking in his responsibilities, is not lazy, and so forth. It must be kept in mind that people act the way they want to act, and not how we might prefer they act. Some people will not respond well to a presentation of facts despite the evidence marshaled to prove them. Such cases may provoke a confrontation with unfortunate consequences such as the termination of a position and other losses. Nevertheless, these events need to be balanced against the stress of continual unreasonable demands and the consequences it causes in the life and family of whom the demands are made. Sometimes the confrontation, while unpleasant, can prove to be a blessing in disguise. How should a person evaluate such an unfortunate consequence? One effective approach is to use the "mental ruler technique" (Burns, 1980). For example, when an irate superior's demands are evaluated on a zero to 100 scale (zero being the most pleasant thing a person could picture happening to him, 100 the worst), the consequence loses some of its sting. People usually have no trouble imaging a very pleasant event; sitting on a sun drenched tropical beach is a typical image. However, most people usually need a bit of help coming up with a worst event, say, being beheaded or such some catastrophe. When compared to the worst event scenario, the consequence does not seem so bad. In fact, it can provoke creative ideas on how to handle the consequence in sound ways. Working for a supervisor who makes unreasonable demands is unpleasant and in the long term can be hurtful. Looking at the situation realistically however, particularly in recognizing (but not condoning) the unreasonableness and even abuse where it exists, prepares a person for the probable confrontation and if necessary, the unfortunate consequences that may occur. A realistic appraisal is necessary to make sound decisions, especially if those decisions are imposed by outside circumstances and may create some hardship. Assertiveness: A challenging and sanctifying process Assertiveness (Morelli, 2006c) in stress situations is another effective way to deal with individuals who have demanding expectations and expect more than can be reasonably performed. A personal comment: Several times in my live I faced such situations. When I have realistically assessed the situation, sought counsel, and communicated the correct facts but still faced rejection, I was able walk away peaceful and content. I even knew that my decision could be blessed by God. Some unfortunate consequence might have come my way, but it would have come my way in any event. "Shame on the other person" I told myself. "I will get on with my life the best way I can and work in a field with those who will help me succeed." This is similar to what Jesus taught his apostles. Jesus said "And if the house is worthy, let your peace come upon it; but if it is not worthy, let your peace return to you. And if any one will not receive you or listen to your words, shake off the dust from your feet as you leave that house or town" (Matthew 10: 13-14). Jesus was speaking of course about people who rejected the word of his Father while my words dealt with everyday events. Nevertheless, if my words to an abusive supervisor were true, and if all truth is united with God (which it is), then the instruction still holds. Besides, my experience has taught me that the counsel works. Love Jesus said: "A new commandment I give to you, that you love one another; even as I have loved you, that you also love one another" (John 13:34). Love is to act for the good and welfare of our neighbor. God forbid any of us be a cause of stress to our neighbor. Stress is deleterious to our physical, psychological, and most important, spiritual welfare. We need to reflect on the words of St. Paul: "Love is patient and kind; love is not jealous or boastful; it is not arrogant or rude. Love does not insist on its own way; it is not irritable or resentful; it does not rejoice at wrong, but rejoices in the right" (1 Corinthians 13:4-6). First as a Christian first and second as a pastoral and psychological physician, I must apply this admonition to all dealings with my neighbor. Then with all unworthiness may I suggest that all Christians do the same to lessen the distress among people. REFERENCES Allen, J. (2003), Aiming Too High May Miss the Mark. http://www.menningerclini... American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV-TR). Washington, DC: author. Burns, D. (1980). Feeling Good: The New Mood Therapy. NY: The New American Library. Burns, D.D. (1989). The Feeling Good Handbook. New York: Morrow. Carretto, C. (1979). Desert in the City. London: Collins. John Chryssavgis, John Rev. Obedience And Authority: Dimensions Of A Hierarchical Church. http://www.goarch.org/pri... Council of Civil Service Unions/Cabinet Office. (2004). Work Stress and Health: The Whitehall II Study. London: author. Creed, F. (1993) Stress and psychosomatic disorders. In L. Goldberger & S. Breznitz (Eds.). Handbook of stress: theoretical and clinical aspects. NY: Free Press. Delongis, A., Folkman, S., & Lazarus, R.S. (1988). The Impact of Daily Stress on Health and Mood: Psychological and Social Resources as Mediators. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 486-495. Ellis, A. & Harper, R.A. (1962). A Guide to Rational Living. Secaucus, NJ: Lyle Stuart. Gruen, R.J. (1993). Stress and Depression: Toward the Development of Integrative Models. In L. Goldberger & S. Breznitz (Eds.). Handbook of Stress: Theoretical and Clinical Models. NY: Free Press. Heady, B. & Wearing, A. (1989). Personality, Life Events and Subjective Well-being: Towards a Dynamic Equilibrium Model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 731-739. John of Kronstadt, St. (1994). Counsels on the Christian Priesthood. Crestwood, NY: St. Vladimir’s Seminary Press. Kohn, P,M., Lafreniere, K. & Gurvich, M. (1991). Hassles, Health, and Personality. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61, 478-482. Lester, N., Nebel, L.E. & Baum, A. (1994). Psychophysiological and Behavioral Measurement of Stress: Applications to Mental Health. In W.R. Avison & I.H. Gotlieb. (Eds.). Stress and mental health: Contemporary issues and prospects for the future. NY: Plenum. McEwen, B.S. & Lasley, E.N. (2002). The End of Stress As We Know It. Washington DC: National Academies Press. Morelli, G. (2005, November 28). Being Perfect vs. Perfectionism. http://www.orthodoxytoday.... Morelli, G. (2006a, March 6). Asceticism and Psychology in the Modern World. http://www.orthodoxytoday.... Morelli, G. (2006b, June 04). The Spiritual Roots of Procrastination. http://www.orthodoxytoday.... Morelli, G. (2006c, July 02). Assertiveness and Christian Charity. http://www.orthodoxytoday.... Morelli, G. (2006d, July 29). Dealing With Brokenness in the World: Learned Psychological Optimism and the Virtue of Hope. http://www.orthodoxytoday.... Palmer, G.E.H., Sherrard, P. & Ware, K. (eds.) (1981). The Philokalia: The Complete Text compiled by St. Nikodimos of the Holy Mountain and St. Makarios of Corinth (Vol. 2) . London: Faber and Faber. Pillow, D.R., Zautra, A.J., & Sandler, I. (1996). Major Life Events and Minor Stressors. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 381-394. Pines, A.M. & Aronson, E. (1988). Career Burnout: Causes and Cures. NY Free Press. Rubenstein, J.S., Meyer, D.E. & Evans, J.E. (2001). Executive Control of Cognitive Processes in Task Switching. Journal of Experimental Psychology - Human Perception and Performance, 27, 763-797. Seta, J.J., Seta, C.E. & Whang, M.A. (1991). Feelings of Negativity and Stress: An Averaging-summation Analysis of Impressions of Negative Life Experiences. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 17, 376-384. Vlachos, Bishop Hierotheos, (1994). Orthodox Psychotherapy: The Science of the Fathers. Levadia, Greece: Birth of the Theotokos Monastery. V. Rev. Fr. George Morelli Ph.D. is a licensed Clinical Psychologist and Marriage and Family Therapist, Coordinator of the Chaplaincy and Pastoral Counseling Ministry of the Antiochian Orthodox Christian Archdiocese, (www.antiochian.org/counse...) and Religion Coordinator (and Antiochian Archdiocesan Liaison) of the Orthodox Christian Association of Medicine, Psychology and Religion. Fr. George is Assistant Pastor of St. George's Antiochian Orthodox Church, San Diego,